The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis Müll. Arg.) which yields rubber latex is a native of the Amazon forest. In the late 1800s, rubber was in great demand due to industrial revolution and the entire Europe depended on rubber supply from the state of Amazonas, Brazil. European business people in Manaus city located in the middle of the Amazon forest became very rich by exporting the rubber latex obtained from rubber trees growing widely in the rain forest. A reflection of their hedonistic life is the Amazon Theatre built in the middle of the Amazon forest by spending an astronomical amount of money even by today’s standards. Despite the crash of the rubber boom due to an act of biopiracy, the Amazon Theatre stands even today and is a main tourist attraction.

Keywords: Rubber tree, Manaus, Henry Wickham, Pseudocercospora ulei, South American leaf blight.

The Indus Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE), representing the First urbanisation in South Asia, exemplifies a highly developed urban economy characterised by planned settlements, craft specialisation, and extensive trade networks. Among its most significant crafts was bead production, systematically organised and concentrated in specialised urban quarters. Archaeological evidence from key sites—including Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira—reveals dedicated workshops where beads of carnelian, agate, steatite, faience, shell, and bone were manufactured through multi-stage techniques such as shaping, drilling, heat treatment, etching, and polishing (Kenoyer 1997; Wright 2010; Mackay 1943). The clustering of production debris, specialised tools, and kilns indicates full-time artisans working in collaborative or family-based units, reflecting occupational neighbourhoods and structured apprenticeship systems (Possehl 2002). Beads functioned as luxury items, markers of social status, and commodities for long-distance trade, with Harappan beads discovered in Mesopotamian contexts, highlighting their role in interregional exchange networks (Rao 1973). The study of these workshops provides critical insights into technological expertise, socio-economic organisation, and urban planning strategies, illustrating how craft specialisation underpinned economic diversification, social stratification, and the complexity of one of the world’s earliest urban civilisations.

Keywords: Indus, Bead working, Archaeology, Workshop, Craft-specialisation.

The early historic period in Maharashtra (circa 3rd century BCE-4th century CE) represents a phase of urbanization, socio-economic complexity and the emergence of long-distance trade networks. Maharashtra’s archaeological record; rock-cut caves, fortified towns, ports, inscriptions and coins hoards provides significant evidence of its participation in Indo-Roman trade. This trade linked the Deccan plateau with the Mediterranean world, creating a dynamic interface between local economies and global exchange systems. As western Maharashtra was less focused archaeologically so a detailed field work was done in Mula, a tributary of Godavari. The research had a major aim to explore the role of the land and their people who resided in the region in the bygone days and also aims to understand the contribution of the villages in the region during the Indo-Roman trade. This brought to light a couple of site that had early historical affiliations as the basin is very close to Nevasa that shows its remarkable contribution during the Indo- Roman times. This paper is an effort to understand the blurred picture of an era approx. 2000 years BP. in the Mula, a major tributary to Godavari.

Keywords: Early history, Indo-Roman, Mula, Kotul, Agriculture, Phytolith.

Chutki Village is situated in a hilly terrain through which several rivers flow Gopath, Banas, Khalaldhar, Rudki Jhariya, Chhoti Banas, Chutki, Badwar, and Nyur serving as the lifelines of the region. Evidence of agriculture, settlements, and religious activities has been found along these river banks. The natural surroundings of the area are enriched with dense forests, waterfalls, and rock cut caves. This study presents an analysis of the archaeological and cultural landscape of Chutki Village and its surrounding regions, Janakpur, Bharatpur, Sonhat, Bareli, Majhatoli, and Murelgadh. The discovery of rock paintings, rock-cut caves, temple remains, warrior sculptures, stone tools, and pottery fragments confirms that this region has been a center of human civilization since prehistoric times.The study primarily seeks to understand the interrelationship between the ethnographic life, traditions, religious practices, and the archaeological heritage of the Baiga and Gond tribes inhabiting the area.

Keywords: Ethnography, Archaeology, Chutki, Murelgadh, Gond, Baiga, Principality, Tradition, Rock Art, Culture, MCB Manendragarh–Chirmiri–Bharatpur.

This paper investigates footwear in ancient India as both a utilitarian craft and a cultural metaphor, while re-examining its long historical trajectory through an integrated analysis of archaeological, iconographic, textual, and ethnographic evidence presented in a structured, tabular synthesis. The four tables (geographic distribution, typological evolution, technology and visual culture, and functional and ritual transformation) condensed diverse data to reveal patterns that would otherwise be obscured by fragmentary preservation. The results demonstrate a persistent technological core (simple soles and attachment strategies), progressive material complexity (from hide and reed to wood, ivory, and metal), and decisive ritualization in the early historic and medieval periods, when footwear became a medium of social representation and devotional practice. Paduka emerges as the central object that links craft competence to symbolic potency. Regional resource economies and religious codes actively mediated footwear form and use. Gandharan strap types reflect cross-cultural exchange, while southern temple padukas embody devotional investment. The paper presents the results derived from the tables, specifies precise locations for table insertion in the manuscript, discusses the tables as analytical devices, and concludes with a set of prioritized research actions aimed at moving from inference toward direct evidence. This synthesis aims to provide a clear, testable framework for subsequent excavation, microanalysis, and craft documentation, thereby strengthening the interpretations of material culture where organic remains are scarce.

Keywords: Footwear; Paduka; Material culture; Ritual symbolism; Social Identity; Craft Traditions.

Rajghat, located at the meeting point of the Ganga and Varuna rivers in Varanasi, is the oldest known settlement of Kashi, with continuous occupation layers dating back to the 8th century BCE. Excavations by archaeologists such as A.K. Narain, T.N. Roy, Krishna Deva, Vidula Jayaswal, and B.R. Mani have revealed Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), terracotta figurines, ring wells, beads, fortification walls, and medieval structures. These finds confirm Rajghat’s role as the nucleus from which Kashi developed into a Mahajanapada capital and a great religious centre. Today, however, this heritage is at risk from the Kashi Inter Modal Station (IMS) redevelopment project. Bulldozers and dumpers are cutting through the mound, destroying stratified deposits and reducing valuable artefacts to debris. Official communication under the Right to Information (RTI) from the Archaeological Survey of India, Sarnath Circle, confirms that no NOC was issued for construction within the regulated and prohibited areas of Lal Khan Tomb and the Rajghat archaeological site. Observations from the field indicate ongoing bulldozing and dumping of artefacts along Lal Khan’s boundaries, in direct violation of ASI regulations. Furthermore, the ASI-provided site plan reveals that even the existing Namo Ghat lies within the prohibited area under the AMASR Act, 1958, making current construction legally impermissible. This is not only an irreplaceable cultural loss but also a violation of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act, 1958, because the site includes the protected 18th-century Mughal monument, the Tomb of Lal Khan. This paper examines the Rajghat crisis in detail, using excavation data, observations from the construction site, and policy documents. It argues that alternatives for infrastructure development exist at Shivpur and Lohta, where large tracts of railway land are available, but were ignored for political reasons. By comparing Rajghat with global examples from Rome, Athens, and Istanbul, the paper shows how development can be made compatible with heritage conservation. Finally, it proposes solutions such as mandatory Heritage Impact Assessments, relocation of the IMS project, and the creation of a Rajghat Heritage Park. The study concludes that protecting Rajghat is not just about saving ruins but about safeguarding the memory and identity of one of the world’s oldest living cities.

Keywords: Rajghat; Varanasi; Kashi; Archaeology; Heritage Conservation; AMASR Act; Inter Modal Station; Northern Black Polished Ware; Development vs. Heritage; Urban Politics; India, Heritage Impact Assessment.